COVID-19, relationships, and contraception: Qualitative perspectives from emerging adults during the COVID-19 lockdown in Accra, Ghana.

Globally, family planning services were disrupted during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. Access to these services was a challenge for sexually active urban youth, and this warrants investigation. Using in-depth interview data, we qualitatively explored the effect of the lockdown on the relationship quality and contraception behaviour of emerging adults (19-24 year olds) who were in relationships during a specified lockdown period. Participants were purposively selected from a densely populated urban area in Accra and two public universities in that vicinity. In-depth interviews were also conducted with two family planning providers. Transcripts generated from the interviews were analysed thematically. Twelve of the 23 emerging adults were sexually active during the lockdown and varied in their reports on the stability of their relationships. The sexually inactive had disruptions in their relationships, mainly due to partner absence and a lack of sexual activity. Modern contraceptives, especially male condoms, were used but were obtained prior to the lockdown as confirmed by family planning providers. Traditional and folkloric methods were used by four participants. Participants reported no unintended pregnancies but rare cases of sexually transmitted infections. During the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, sexually active urban youth in Accra navigated the restrictions of lockdown imposition with diverse experiences. Therefore, understanding young adults' unique contraceptive behaviours and practices is essential to providing relevant sexual and reproductive health services to meet their needs. Discussions on the impacts of COVID-19 should be extended to sexual and reproductive health concerns such as access to contraceptives.

"You Can't Look at an Orange and Draw a Banana": Using Research Evidence to Develop Relevant Health Policy in Ghana.

We examined factors that either enabled or inhibited the process of evidence-based decision making regarding health policy in Ghana. We conducted qualitative interviews with 2 major groups of stakeholders: health policy and systems research producers (research producers [RPs]) and policy makers (PMs). In-depth interviews were conducted with 12 RPs, who were representatives from 11 health policy and systems research institutions; and 12 PMs working in various national health-related agencies, ministries, and departments. We analyzed the data using the thematic analysis approach. Interview results showed 5 recurring themes in their discussion of enablers and inhibitors of the evidence-to-policy process: (1) the quality, relevance, and quantity of available research evidence; (2) how findings are communicated to PMs; (3) the strength of relationships between RPs and PMs; (4) available structures that promote evidence-based policy making; and (5) the political context in which research and policy making occurs. These findings point to some specific areas for further collaboration and communication among Ghanaian stakeholders to ensure that appropriate health policies are developed from an evidence base.

Factors Associated with Adolescent Pregnancy in Sub-Saharan Africa during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review of Socioeconomic Influences and Essential Interventions.

Objective: A literature review was conducted to analyze the impact of COVID-19 on documented preexisting determinants of adolescent pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa such as poverty, inequitable gender norms, low access to education, and reproductive health services. Methods: The terms "sub-Saharan Africa," "Gender Norms," "Poverty," and "Adolescent Pregnancy" were used to search the literature for preexisting determinants of adolescent pregnancy in academic and grey literature. "COVID-19" was added to investigate the potential consequences of the pandemic. The literature revealed similar experiences in adolescent girls during the Ebola outbreak, which lead to the analysis of government and healthcare official responses to previous epidemics. Results: The literature review revealed that the relationship between identified micro (inequitable gender norms, transactional sex, sexual and gender-based violence, early marriage, and menstruation) and macro (poverty, education, and healthcare) factors contributing to adolescent pregnancy were exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Conclusion: Three realistic targets including, expanding and communicating available reproductive health resources, prioritizing the role of women in the economy, and ensuring return to school should be included as part of current COVID-19 mitigation programs. Additionally, these interventions should be incorporated in future public health preparedness plans to reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy during public health emergencies.

Being ready, willing and able: understanding the dynamics of family planning decision-making through community-based group discussions in the Northern Region, Ghana.

Regional contraceptive use differentials are pronounced in Ghana, with the lowest levels occurring in the Northern Region. Community-based health services, intended to promote maternal and child health and family planning use, may have failed to address this problem. This paper presents an analysis of qualitative data on community perspectives on family planning "readiness," "willingness," and "ability" compiled in the course of 20 focus group discussions with residents (mothers and fathers of children under five, young boys and girls, and community elders) of two communities each in two Northern Region districts that were either equipped with or lacking direct access to community health services. The study districts are localities where contraceptive use is uncommon and fertility is exceptionally high. Results suggest that direct access to community services has had no impact on contraceptive attitudes or practice. Widespread method knowledge is often offset by side-effect misperceptions. Social constraints are prominent owing to opposition from men. Findings attest to the need to improve the provision of contraceptive information and expand method choice options. Because societal acceptance and access in this patriarchal setting is critical to use, frontline worker deployment should prioritize strategies for outreach to men and community groups with prominent attention to social mobilization themes and strategies that support family planning.

Household food sources and diarrhoea incidence in poor urban communities, Accra Ghana.

Diarrhoeal diseases remain a significant cause of morbidity and mortality, particularly in poor urban communities in the Global South. Studies on food access and safety have however not considered the sources of discrete food categories and their propensity to harbour and transmit diarrhoeal disease pathogens in poor urban settings. We sought to contribute to knowledge on urban food environment and enteric infections by interrogating the sources and categories of common foods and their tendency to transmit diarrhoea in low-income communities in Accra. We modelled the likelihood of diarrhoea transmission through specific food categories sourced from home or out of home after controlling for alternate transmission pathways and barriers. We used structured interviews where households that participated in the study were selected through a multi-stage systematic sampling approach. We utilized data on 506 households from 3 low-income settlements in Accra. These settlements have socio-economic characteristics mimicking typical low-income communities in the Global South. The results showed that the incidence of diarrhoea in a household is explained by type and source of food, source of drinking water, wealth and the presence of children below five years in the household. Rice-based staples which were consumed by 94.5% of respondents in the week preceding the survey had a higher likelihood of transmitting diarrhoeal diseases when consumed out of home than when eaten at home. Sources of hand-served dumpling-type foods categorized as "staple balls" had a nuanced relationship with incidence of diarrhoea. These findings reinforce the need for due diligence in addressing peculiar needs of people in vulnerable conditions of food environment in poor urban settlements in order to reap a co-benefit of reduced incidence of diarrhoea while striving to achieve the global development goal on ending hunger.

Is It the Timing? Short-Term Mobility and Coital Frequency in Agbogbloshie, Ghana.

Short-term mobility is often associated with increased sexual risk behavior. Mobile individuals often have higher rates of sexual risk behavior compared to non-mobile individuals, but the reasons why are not clear. Using monthly retrospective panel data from 202 men and 282 women in Agbogbloshie, Ghana, we tested whether short-term mobility was associated with changes in coital frequency, and whether the association was due to the act of travel in the given month (e.g., enabling higher risk behavior), the reason for travel, or an individual's travel propensity at other times in the year. Overnight travel specifically to visit family or friends, or for education, health, or other reasons, was associated with increased coital frequency for men. However, men with higher travel propensities had lower overall coital frequency and the act of traveling enabled more sex only for the most frequent male travelers. Men who seldom traveled had much higher coital frequency, but the act of traveling was not associated with additional sex acts. For women, travel for education, health, or other reasons increased coital frequency. Occasional female travelers had slightly more sex acts compared to non-mobile women, and the act of traveling for these women was associated with slight increases in coital frequency, supporting the enabling hypothesis. Highly mobile women had fewer sex acts per month on average. Our findings suggest that mobility characteristics measured on a broad temporal scale, as well as the reason for mobility, are important to understand the relationship between short-term mobility and sexual behavior.

Exploring intersections between gender-based violence and adolescent sexual and reproductive health and rights in West Africa: A review of the literature produced in the sub-region.

This review, commissioned by the Canadian International Development Research Centre (IDRC), explores the intersection between gender-based violence (GBV) and adolescent sexual and reproductive health and rights (ASRHR) in the Economic Community of West African States. It is imperative to understand this intersection for research, policy, and practice purposes in a sub-region characterized by high youthful populations with significant reproductive health challenges. A mapping exercise, literature review, and gap analysis were conducted. Findings indicate that several stakeholders and organizations exist, though few are youth-led or centred. Legislation and policies are not comprehensive or necessarily enforced in a context of legal pluralism where institutions and infrastructure in place for providing services are weak. There was minimal knowledge production from the region on the GBV-ASRHR intersections, uneven attention to the issues among countries, and intersections mainly focused on female genital mutilation and child marriage. Opportunities for addressing gaps and implications for research, policy, and practice, arising from the findings are discussed.

Postpartum and post-abortion contraceptive use among unmarried young women in Ghana.

Pregnancy outcomes impact subsequent contraceptive behaviour. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between previous pregnancy outcomes and subsequent contraceptive behaviours among unmarried young women intending to delay childbearing. Using data from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, among 1118 sexually experienced, fecund and non-pregnant unmarried women aged 15-24 years, the study assessed how childbirth and abortion are related to sexual abstinence and use of modern contraception. While about 70% of unmarried young women were nulligravid, approximately 11% had had an abortion and 18.2% were postpartum. The majority of respondents were sexually abstinent while 21% and 27% were using and not using contraception, respectively. Postpartum women were more likely than nulligravid and post-abortion women to use contraceptives. Post-abortion women were least likely to be sexually abstinent. Number of years since the respondent's sexual debut was positively associated with the likelihood of using modern contraception, particularly among postpartum women, and negatively associated with sexual abstinence among those who had aborted. The findings show that prior pregnancy outcomes have significant implications for secondary abstinence and contraceptive use among unmarried young women in Ghana. Post-abortion women are more likely than postpartum women to be sexually active but less likely to use contraceptives. Efforts must be strengthened towards increasing access to modern contraceptives for young women who present for abortion in Ghana.

The Migration Experience and Differential Risks to Sexual and Reproductive Health in Ghana.

Background. Though internal migration in Ghana has become increasingly common in recent years, research has not focused on the gendered experiences and perceptions of migration and the association with sexual and reproductive health risks for male and female migrants. Method. A qualitative study using semistructured interviews among migrant market workers and market leaders working in Agbogbloshie in Accra, Ghana, was completed in April 2018. Interview domains for the migrant interviews included the following: expectations of migration, current working and living conditions, sexual and reproductive health, access to health care, and self-reported health status. Qualitative data were analyzed using a combination of inductive and deductive coding in MAXQDA. Results. Data indicate that migrant workers have a variety of perceptions surrounding their migration experience. In the urban destination, migrants face a number of challenges that negatively affect their health, including poor accommodation, safety concerns, and low levels of social support. Reported risks to sexual and reproductive health were unsafe sexual encounters, such as low condom use and sexual assault. Discussion. The negative sexual and reproductive health outcomes among migrant populations in urban poor settings are a result of a confluence of factors, including perceptions of destination locations, working and living conditions, social support, and gender norms. A complex systems approach to understanding the sexual health of migrants is warranted. Conclusion. Findings from this research illustrate the complexity of health risks among migrants in Agbogbloshie. Further research is needed to explore the increased vulnerability of migrants compared with nonmigrants in urban poverty and the long-term implications of sexual and reproductive health risks in vulnerable migrant communities.

Exploring Conscientious Objection to Abortion Among Health Providers in Ghana.

CONTEXT: Few studies have explored clinicians' roles in the abortion experience in Ghana. Examining how clinicians understand conscientious objection to abortion-the right to refuse to provide legal abortion on the basis of moral or personal beliefs-may provide insight that could help manage the practice. METHODS: Eight in-depth interviews and four focus group discussions were conducted with 14 doctors and 20 midwives in health facilities in Ghana's Eastern and Volta Regions in May 2018. The semi-structured interview guides covered such topics as clinicians' understanding of conscientious objection, how it is practiced and the consequences of conscientious objection for providers and clients. The data were analyzed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: Most clinicians did not understand the term "conscientious objection," and midwives had more knowledge on the subject than doctors. The main reasons for conscientious objection were antiabortion religious and cultural beliefs. Clinicians who objected referred clients to willing providers, counseled them to continue the pregnancies or inadvertently encouraged unsafe abortions. The negative consequences of conscientious objection to abortion for clients were complications and death from unsafe abortions; the consequences for providers included high patient volume and stigma for nonobjectors, leading some to claim objection to avoid these. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the need for further research on the consequences of conscientious objection, including stigma leading to refusals. Such research may ultimately help to restrict clinicians' misuse of the right to object and improve women's reproductive health care in Ghana.

RESUMEN Contexto: Pocos estudios han explorado los roles del personal clínico en la experiencia del aborto en Ghana. Examinar la forma en que el personal clínico comprende la objeción de conciencia al aborto ­el derecho de rehusarse a proveer servicios de aborto legal sobre la base de la moral o creencias personales­ podría aportar conocimientos que ayuden a gestionar la práctica del procedimiento. Métodos: Se realizaron ocho entrevistas en profundidad y cuatro discusiones de grupos focales con la participación de 14 médicos y 20 parteras en instituciones de salud en las regiones de Ghana oriental y del Volta en mayo de 2018. Las guías de entrevistas semiestructuradas cubrieron temas como la comprensión del personal clínico acerca de la objeción de conciencia, la forma en que se practica y las consecuencias de la objeción de conciencia para proveedores de servicios y clientes. Los datos se analizaron mediante análisis temático. Resultados: La mayor parte del personal clínico no comprendió el término "objeción de conciencia" y las parteras tuvieron más conocimiento del tema que los médicos. Las principales razones para la objeción de conciencia fueron las creencias religiosas y culturales contrarias al aborto. El personal clínico que practicó la objeción refirió a sus clientes a proveedores dispuestos a dar el servicio, les aconsejó continuarcon los embarazos o inadvertidamente les motivó para tener abortos inseguros. Las consecuencias negativas de la objeción de conciencia al aborto para las clientas fueron complicaciones y muerte debidas a abortos inseguros; las consecuencias para los proveedores incluyeron un alto volumen de pacientes y el estigma para los no objetores, lo que condujo a que algunos se identificaran como objetores para evitar dichas consecuencias. Conclusiones: Los hallazgos destacan la necesidad de mayor investigación sobre las consecuencias de la objeción de conciencia, incluido el estigma que conduce a negar los servicios. Esa investigación podría ayudar, en última instancia, a restringir el uso indebido del derecho a objetar por parte del personal clínico y a mejorar los servicios de salud reproductiva para las mujeres en Ghana.

RÉSUMÉ Contexte: Rares sont les études qui examinent le rôle des cliniciens dans l'expérience de l'avortement au Ghana. Il peut être utile d'examiner comment les cliniciens comprennent l'objection de conscience à l'avortement ­ c.-à-d. le droit de refuser la prestation d'un avortement légal sur la base de croyances morales ou personnelles ­, afin de mieux gérer la pratique. Méthodes: Huit entretiens en profondeur et quatre discussions de groupe ont été menés avec 14 médecins et 20 sages-femmes de structures sanitaires des régions Orientale et de la Volta au Ghana, en mai 2018. Les guides de ces entretiens semistructurés couvraient des questions telles que la compréhension du concept d'objection de conscience par les cliniciens, sa pratique et ses conséquences pour les prestataires et les patientes. Les données ont été analysées par analyse thématique. Résultats: La plupart des cliniciens ne comprenaient pas l'expression « objection de conscience ¼; les sages-femmes étaient mieux informées sur la question que les médecins. Les principales raisons de l'objection de conscience étaient les croyances religieuses et culturelles opposées à l'avortement. Les cliniciens objecteurs aiguillaient les patientes vers les prestataires qui ne l'étaient pas, leur conseillaient de poursuivre leur grossesse ou les encourageaient par inadvertance à recourir à l'avortement non médicalisé. Les conséquences négatives de l'objection de conscience à l'avortement étaient, pour les patientes, les complications, parfois mortelles, de l'avortement non médicalisé; pour les prestataires, ces conséquences se révélaient dans le grand nombre de patientes et la stigmatisation des non-objecteurs, en conduisant certains à invoquer eux aussi l'objection pour les éviter. Conclusions: Les constats de l'étude mettent en lumière la nécessité d'une recherche approfondie sur les conséquences de l'objection de conscience, y compris la stigmatisation menant au refus d'assurer le service. Cette recherche aidera peutêtre, en fin de compte, à limiter l'abus du droit d'objection des cliniciens et à améliorer les soins de santé reproductive des femmes au Ghana.

Coital Frequency and Male Concurrent Partnerships During Pregnancy and Postpartum in Agbogbloshie, Ghana.

During pregnancy and postpartum, women in high HIV prevalence regions continue to be at high risk for acquiring HIV, due to both behavioral and biological mechanisms, despite declines in coital frequency as a pregnancy advances. We estimated differences in rates of partnership concurrency for men with and without pregnant or postpartum sexual partners. We used monthly retrospective panel data from Ghana from three perspectives: couple-level data, female reports of pregnancy and male partner concurrency, and male reports of concurrent partnerships and female partner pregnancy. Coital frequency increased during the first trimester and then declined with advancing pregnancy. However, in all three analyses, there was no compelling evidence that men with pregnant or postpartum partners had additional concurrent partnerships. Our findings suggest that even though women's sexual activity likely declines during pregnancy and postpartum, they may not be at increased risk of HIV/STI due to their partners seeking additional partnerships.

Sense of community and willingness to support malaria intervention programme in urban poor Accra, Ghana.

BACKGROUND: The extensive research on community members' willingness to support malaria interventions ignores the role of psychosocial determinants. This study assesses the impact of individuals' sense of community (perceptions of community cohesion, altruism, seeking help from neighbours and migrant status) on their willingness to participate in a mosquito control programme using data on 768 individuals from the 2013 RIPS Urban Health and Poverty Survey in poor coastal communities in Accra, Ghana. A contingent valuation experiment was employed to elicit individuals' willingness to support the programme by contributing nothing, labour time/money only or both. RESULTS: Findings show that different dimensions of sense of community related differently with willingness to support the programme. Perceived community cohesion was associated with lower odds while help-seeking from neighbours and being a migrant were associated with higher odds of supporting the programme. Altruism was the only dimension not linked to willingness to participate. CONCLUSIONS: Different dimensions of sense of community are associated with community members' willingness to provide labour, time or both to support the malaria eradication programme. The findings of this study have implications for targeting social relational aspects, in addition to geographical aspects, of communities with malaria-resilient policy and intervention. They also warrant further research on psychosocial factors that predict willingness to support health programmes in urban poor settings.

Correlates of sexual inactivity and met need for contraceptives among young women in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Young women in sub-Saharan Africa continue to experience unintended pregnancies despite effective contraceptive methods being more readily available than ever. This study sought to determine the correlates of met need for contraceptives and sexual inactivity among young women in Ghana who want to postpone childbearing. We examine this among all women and then separately by marital status. METHODS: Using data from 1532 females aged 15-24 years from the 2014 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, we conducted descriptive and multinomial logistic regression analyses to assess sociodemographic, economic and obstetric determinants of the type of family planning method (current abstinence, modern contraceptive method) used by married and unmarried young women. RESULTS: A higher proportion (~ 44%) of the respondents was currently abstinent compared to those with met need (~ 25%). Abstinence was higher among single young women while unmet and met need were higher among the married. Having at least senior high school education was significantly associated with the likelihood of current abstinence (especially among single women) and with met need. Being in the middle and rich categories, on the other hand, was associated with lower likelihood of current abstinence and a met need. Compared with multiparous women, those with one or no surviving child had a lower likelihood of being abstinent and having a met need. Other correlates of both current abstinence and met need are region of residence and ethnicity, while previous pregnancy termination and age were associated with abstinence and contraceptive use, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Unmet need is high among young women but abstinence is an option they are using. As reproductive health programmes target the at-risk groups, the secondary and higher educational levels must be attained by most women as this is associated with use of abstinence and met need.

Factors associated with treatment-seeking for malaria in urban poor communities in Accra, Ghana.

BACKGROUND: In Ghana, about 3.5 million cases of malaria are recorded each year. Urban poor residents particularly have a higher risk of malaria mainly due to poor housing, low socio-economic status and poor sanitation. Alternative treatment for malaria (mainly African traditional/herbal and/or self-medication) is further compounding efforts to control the incidence of malaria in urban poor communities. This study assesses factors associated with seeking alternative treatment as the first response to malaria, relative to orthodox treatment in three urban poor communities in Accra, Ghana. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted in three urban poor localities in Accra, Ghana among individuals in their reproductive ages (15-59 years for men and 15-49 years for women). The analytic sample for the study was 707. A multinomial regression model was used to assess individual, interpersonal and structural level factors associated with treatment-seeking for malaria. RESULTS: Overall, 31% of the respondents sought orthodox treatment, 8% sought traditional/herbal treatment and 61% self-medicated as the first response to malaria. At the bivariate level, more males than females used traditional/herbal treatment and self-medicated for malaria. The results of the regression analysis showed that current health insurance status, perceived relative economic standing, level of social support, and locality of residence were associated with seeking alternative treatment for malaria relative to orthodox treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that many urban poor residents in Accra self-medicate as the first response to malaria. Additionally, individuals who were not enrolled in a health insurance scheme, those who perceived they had a low economic standing, those with a high level of social support, and locality of residence were significantly associated with the use of alternative treatment for malaria. Multi-level strategies should be employed to address the use of alternative forms of treatment for malaria within the context of urban poverty.

Is a woman's first pregnancy outcome related to her years of schooling? An assessment of women's adolescent pregnancy outcomes and subsequent educational attainment in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent pregnancy and childbearing pose challenges to young women's educational attainment. Studies show that while adolescent childbearing reduces educational attainment, not becoming pregnant and resorting to induced abortion when pregnant increases women's educational levels. This study examined relationships between adolescents' resolution of their first pregnancies and subsequent educational outcomes, for all women ages 20-49 years and across three age cohorts: 20-29, 30-39 and 40-49 year olds. METHODS: Using the 2007 Ghana Maternal Health Survey (GMHS) dataset, we conducted ANOVA, bivariate and multivariate linear regression analyses on 8186 women ages 20-49 years. Women's first adolescent pregnancy outcomes were measured as live births, induced abortions, spontaneous abortions or no pregnancy, while educational attainment constituted their years of schooling. RESULTS: Findings showed years of schooling was highest for women who had induced abortions, and lowest for those who experienced live births. Women with live births as teenagers experienced significantly fewer years of schooling compared to their counterparts who terminated their pregnancies. Also, women with miscarriages and stillbirths exhibited levels similar to those who gave birth. Although women with no teenage births had higher educational levels than their childbearing counterparts, controlling for age at first pregnancy resulted in similar years of schooling compared to those who gave birth. Finally, the 30 to 39 year olds were the only age group whose results contradicted those of all women. These findings may be due to the socio-economic and political events that affected women's educational attainment at the time. CONCLUSIONS: Childbearing during adolescence does impact women's educational attainment levels. Therefore, in addition to encouraging young mothers to continue schooling, all other interventions to help keep young girls in school must focus on preventing and/or delaying their adolescent pregnancies.

Geographic mobility and potential bridging for sexually transmitted infections in Agbogbloshie, Ghana.

Short-term mobility can significantly influence the spread of infectious disease. In order for mobile individuals to geographically spread sexually transmitted infections (STIs), individuals must engage in sexual acts with different partners in two places within a short time. In this study, we considered the potential of mobile individuals as bridge populations - individuals who link otherwise disconnected sexual networks and contributed to ongoing STI transmission. Using monthly retrospective panel data, we examined associations between short-term mobility and sexual partner concurrency in Agbogbloshie, Ghana. We also examined bridging by the location of sex acts and the location of sexual partners in concurrent triads, and whether mobile individuals from our sample were more likely to be members of geographic bridging triads. Although reported rates of sexual partnership concurrency were much higher for men compared to women, mobility was only associated with increased concurrency for women. Additionally, this association held for middle-distance mobility and short-duration trips for women. Taking into account the location of sex acts and the location of sexual partners, about 22% of men (21.7% and 22.4% for mobile and non-mobile men, respectively) and only 3% of women (1.4% and 3.3% for mobile and non-mobile women, respectively) were potential bridges for STIs over the last year. Our results highlight the gendered nature of mobility and sexual risk behavior, reflecting the normative social context that encourages women to conceal certain types of sexual behavior.

Examining the association between motivations for induced abortion and method safety among women in Ghana.

This article draws on data from 552 women interviewed in the 2007 Ghana Maternal Health Survey to examine the association between motivations for women's pregnancy terminations and the safety of methods used. Women's reasons for induced abortions represented their vulnerability types at the critical time of decision making. Different motivations can result in taking various forms of action with the most vulnerable potentially resorting to the most harmful behaviors. Analysis of survey data pointed to spacing/delaying births as the main reason for abortion. Furthermore, women were more likely to terminate pregnancies unsafely if their main motivation for abortion was financial constraints. Especially among rural women, abortions for any reason were more likely associated with safe methods than if for financial reasons. These findings suggest a theme of vulnerability, resulting from poverty, as the motivations for women to resort to harmful abortion methods. Therefore, interventions formulated to reduce instances of unsafe pregnancy terminations should target reducing poverty and capacity building with the aim of economic advancement, in addition to curbing the root of the problem: unintended pregnancy.

What are the characteristics of 'sexually ready' adolescents? Exploring the sexual readiness of youth in urban poor Accra.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent sexual activity, especially among the urban poor, remains a challenge. Despite numerous interventions and programs to address the negative consequences arising from early and frequent sexual activity among youth in sub-Saharan Africa, including Ghana, only slight progress has been made. A plausible explanation is that our understanding of what adolescents think about sex and about their own sexuality is poor. In that sense, examining how adolescents in urban poor communities think about their sexual readiness, and identifying characteristics associated with that sexual self-concept dimension, should deepen our understanding of this topical issue. METHODS: A total of 196 male and female adolescents, ages 12 to 19, were surveyed in the 2011 RIPS Urban Health and Poverty Project in Accra, Ghana. The youth responded to three statements which determined their levels of sexual readiness. Other background characteristics were also obtained enabling the assessment of the correlates of their preparedness to engage in sex. The data were analyzed using ordered logistic regression models. RESULTS: Overall, the majority of respondents did not consider themselves ready for sex. Multivariate analyses indicated that sexual experience, exposure to pornographic movies, gender, ethnicity and household wealth were significantly linked to their readiness for sex. CONCLUSION: Sexual readiness is related to sexual activity as well as other characteristics of the adolescents, suggesting the need to consider these factors in the design of programs and interventions to curb early sex. The subject of sexual readiness has to be investigated further to ensure adolescents do not identify with any negative effects of this sexual self-view.

Minimal coital dilution in Accra, Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Coital dilution, the reduction in the coital frequency per partner when an additional ongoing partner is added, may reduce the transmission potential of partnership concurrency for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. Empirical estimates of dilution, especially dilution of sexual acts unprotected by condoms, are needed to inform prevention research. METHODS: Sexually active adults in Accra, Ghana were recruited in a multistage household probability sample. Degree (number of ongoing partners), total acts, and unprotected acts were measured retrospectively for each month in the past year through an event history calendar. Random-effects negative binomial models estimated the association between degree and coital frequency. RESULTS: Compared with person-months with a single partner (monogamy), 2.06 times as many total acts and 1.94 times as many unprotected acts occurred in months with 2 partners. In months with 3 partners, 2.90 times as many total acts and 2.39 times as many unprotected acts occurred compared with monogamous months. Total acts but not unprotected acts also declined with partnership duration. CONCLUSIONS: No dilution was observed for total acts with up to 3 concurrent partners, but a small amount of dilution was observed for unprotected acts for months with multiple concurrencies. This suggests moderate selective condom use in months with multiple concurrencies. The implications of the observed dilution for future HIV transmission must be investigated with mathematical models.

Migration, sexual networks, and HIV in Agbogbloshie, Ghana.

BACKGROUND: HIV is spread through structured sexual networks, which are influenced by migration patterns, but network-oriented studies of mobility and HIV risk behavior have been limited. OBJECTIVE: We present a comprehensive description and initial results from our Migration & HIV in Ghana (MHG) study in Agbogbloshie, an urban slum area within Accra, Ghana. METHODS: The MHG study was a population-based cross-sectional study of adults aged 18-49 in Agbogbloshie in 2012. We used a one-year retrospective relationship history calendar to collect egocentric network data on sexual partners as well as migration and short-term mobility, and tested for prevalent HIV-1/2 infection. RESULTS: HIV prevalence was 5.5%, with prevalence among women (7.2%) over twice that of men (2.8%). Three-quarters of residents were born outside the Greater Accra region, but had lived in Agbogbloshie an average of 10.7 years. Only 7% had moved housing structures within the past year. However, short-term mobility was common. Residents had an average of 7.3 overnight trips in the last year, with women reporting more travel than men. Thirty-seven percent of men and 9% of women reported more than one sexual partner in the last year. CONCLUSIONS: Population-based surveys of migration and sexual risk behavior using relationship history calendars in low-resource settings can produce high quality data. Residents in Agbogbloshie are disproportionately affected by HIV, and have high levels of short-term mobility. HIV prevention interventions targeted to highly mobile populations in high prevalence settings may have far-reaching and long-term implications.